Ceramic Processing

Chapter 1 Ceramic Fabrication Processes - An Introductory Overview 1.Introduction 2. Ceramic Fabrication Processes 3.Fabrication of Ceramics from Powders: An Overview 1.3.1 Powder Synthesis and Characterization 1.3.2 Powder Consolidation 1.3.3 The Sintering Process 1.3.4 Ceramic Microstructures 1. Case Study in Processing: Fabrication of Al2O3 from Powders 2. Concluding Remarks References Chapter 2 Synthesis and Preparation of Powders: Mechanical Methods 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Powder Characteristics 2.3 Powder Preparation by Mechanical Methods 2.4 High Compression Roller Mills 2.5 Jet Mills 2.6 Ball Mills 2.7 High-Energy Ball Milling 2.8 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 3 Powder Synthesis by Chemical Methods 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Solid State Reactions 3.2.1 Decomposition 3.2.2 Reaction between Solids 3.3.2 Reduction 3.3 Precipitation from Liquid Solutions 3.3.1 Principles of Precipitation from Solution 3.3.2 Methods for Preparing Powders by Precipitation from Solution 3.3.3 Precipitation Methods Based on Evaporation of the Liquid 3.4 Freeze Drying 3.5 Gel Routes 3.5.1 Sol- Gel Processing 3.5.2 Pechini Method 3.5.3 Citrate Gel Method 3.5.4 Glycine Nitrate Process 3.6 Non-Aqueous Liquid Reactions 3.7 Vapor Phase Reactions 3.7.1 Gas- Solid Reaction 3.7.2 Reaction between Gases 3.8 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 4 Synthesis of Ceramic Nanoparticles 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Methods for Synthesizing Ceramic Nanoparticles 4.3 Solid- Solid Methods 4.4 Solid- Vapor- Solid Methods 4.5 Liquid- Solid Methods 4.6 Liquid- Vapor- Solid Methods 4.7 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 5 Powder Characterization 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Physical Characterization 5.2.1 Types of Particles 5.2.2 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution 5.2.3 Particle Shape 5.2.4 Measurement of Particle Size and Size Distribution 5.2.5 Surface Area 5.2.6 Porosity of Particles 5.3 Chemical Composition 5.4 Crystal Structure and Phase Composition 5.5 Surface Characterization 5.5.1 Surface Structure 5.5.2 Surface Chemistry 5.6 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 6 Science of Colloidal Processing 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Types of Colloids 6.3 Attractive Surface Forces 6.3.1 Van der Waals Forces between Atoms and Molecules 6.3.2 Van der Waals Forces Macroscopic Bodies 6.3.3 The Hamaker Constant 6.3.4 Effect of the Intervening Medium 6.4 Stabilization of Colloidal Suspensions 6.5 Electrostatic Stabilization 6.5.1 Charges on Particles in a Liquid 6.5.2 Origins of the Electrical Double Layer 6.5.3 Isolated Double Layer 6.5.4 Surface Charge 6.5.5 Repulsion between Two Double Layers 6.5.6 Stability of Electrostatically Stabilized Colloids 6.5.7 Kinetics of Flocculation 6.5.8 Electrokinetic Phenomena 6.6 Steric Stabilization 6.6.1 Adsorption of Polymers from Solution 6.6.2 Origins of Steric Stabilization 6.6.3 Effect of Solvent and Temperature 6.6.4 Stability of Sterically Stabilized Suspensions 6.6.5 Stabilization by Polymers in Free Solution 6.7 Electrosteric Stabilization 6.7.1 Dissociation of Polyelectrolytes in Solution 6.7.2 Adsorption of Polyelectrolytes from Solution 6.7.3 Stability of Electrosterically Stabilized Suspensions 6.8 Structure of Consolidated Colloids 6.9 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 7 Rheology of Colloidal Suspensions, Slurries and Pastes 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Types of Rheological Behavior 7.2.1 Viscous Flow Behavior 7.2.2 Viscoelastic Behavior 7.3 Rheological Measurement 7.4 Factors Influencing the Viscosity of Colloidal Suspensions 7.4.1 Interparticle Forces 7.4.2 Particle Concentration 7.4.3 Particle Size and Particle Size Distribution 7.4.4 Particle Morphology 7.4.5 Suspension Medium 7.5 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 8 Processing Additives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Types of Additives 8.3 Solvents Selection of a Solvent 8.4 Dispersants 8.4.1 Inorganic Acid Salts 8.4.2 Surfactants 8.4.3 Low to Medium Molecular Weights Polymers 8.5 Binders 8.5.1 Inorganic Binders 8.5.2 Synthetic Organic Binders 8.5.3 Natural Organic Binders 8.5.4 Selection of a Binder 8.6 Plasticizers 8.7 Other Potential Additives 8.8 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 9 Granulation, Mixing and Packing of Particles 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Granulation of Particles 9.2.1 Desirable Characteristics of Binders 9.2.2 Preparation of Granules 9.2.3 Spray Drying 9.2.4 Factors Controlling the Strength of Granules 9.2.5 Spray Freeze Drying 9.3 Mixing of Particles 9.3.1 Mixing and Segregation Mechanisms 9.3.2 Mixture Composition and Quality 9.3.3 Statistical Methods 9.3.4 Measurement Techniques 9.3.5 Mixing Technology 9.4 Packing of Particles 9.4.1 Regular Packing of Monosize Spheres 9.4.2 Random Packing of Particles 9.4.3 Packing of Continuous Size Distributions 9.5 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 10 Forming of Ceramics; Conventional Methods 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Dry and Semi-Dry Pressing 10.2.1 Die Pressing 10.2.2 Isostatic Pressing 10.3 Suspension-Based Methods 10.3.1 Slip Casting 10.3.2 Pressure Casting 10.3.3 Tape Casting 10.3.4 Centrifugal Consolidation 10.3.5 Dip and Spin Coating 10.3.6 Electrophoretic Deposition 10.3.7 Freeze Casting 10.3.8 Gelcasting 10.3.9 Direct Coagulation Casting 10.3.10 Aqueous Injection Molding 10.4 Plastic Forming Methods 10.4.1 Extrusion 10.4.2 Injection Molding 10.5 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 11 Additive Manufacturing of Ceramics 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Powder-Based Methods 11.2.1 Selective Laser Sintering 11.2.2 Three-Dimensional Printing 11.3 Particle-Filled Polymer Methods 11.3.1 Fused Deposition Modeling 11.3.2 Laminated Object Manufacturing 11.4 Suspension-Based Methods 11.4.1 Stereolithography 11.4.2 Inkjet Printing 11.4.3 Robocasting 11.4.4 Freeze Extrusion Fabrication Problems References Chapter 12 Drying, Debinding and Microstructural Characterization of Green Articles 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Drying of Granular Ceramics 12.2.1 Drying of Drops of a Suspension on a Surface 12.2.2 Drying of Adherent Coatings 12.2.3 Drying of Three-Dimensional Solids 12.2.4 Drying Technology 12.3 Binder Removal 12.3.1 Extraction by Capillary Flow 12.3.2 Solvent Extraction 12.3.3 Supercritical Extraction 12.3.4 Thermal Debinding 12.3.5 Thermal Debinding Process Design 12.4 Green Microstructures and Their Characterization 12.5 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 13 Sintering Theory and Fundamentals 13.1 Introduction 13.1.1 Types of Sintering 13.1.2 Measurement of Sintering 13.1.3 Analysis of Sintering 13.2 Solid-State Sintering 13.2.1 Driving Force for Sintering 13.2.2 Effects of Surface Curvature 13.2.3 Grain Boundary Effects 13.2.4 Mechanisms of Sintering 13.2.5 Stages of Sintering 13.2.6 Theoretical Analysis of Solid-State Sintering 13.3 Grain Growth in Solid-State Sintering 13.3.1 Types of Grain Growth 13.3.2 Importance of Controlling Grain Growth 13.3.3 Normal Grain Growth 13.3.4 Abnormal Grain Growth 13.3.5 Ostwald Ripening 13.3.6 Control of Grain Growth 13.3.7 Grain Growth in Porous Ceramics 13.3.8 Simultaneous Densification and Grain Growth 13.4 Viscous Sintering 13.5 Liquid-Phase Sintering 13.5.1 Stages of Liquid-Phase Sintering 13.5.2 Microstructures of Liquid-Phase Sintered Ceramics 13.5.3 Role of Solid-State Sintering in Liquid-Phase Sintering 13.5.4 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Factors 13.5.5 Mechanisms of Liquid-Phase Sintering 13.5.6 Phase Diagrams in Liquid-Phase Sintering 13.6 Pressure-Assisted Sintering 13.6.1 Pressure-Assisted Sintering Models 13.6.2 Mechanisms of Pressure-Assisted Sintering 13.7 Field-Assisted Sintering Techniques 13.7.1 Spark Plasma Sintering 13.7.2 Flash Sintering 13.8 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 14 Sintering Process Variables and Techniques 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Sintering Furnaces and Furnace Supports 14.3 Effect of Particle Size and Packing 14.3.1 Particle Size 14.3.2 Particle Size Distribution 14.3.3 Particle Shape and Particle Structure 14.3.4 Particle Packing 14.3.5 Effect of Green Density 14.4 Anisotropic Shrinkage 14.4.1 Pore Shape Anisotropy 14.4.2 Particle Alignment 14.5 Heating Schedule 14.5.1 Design and Prediction of the Heating Schedule 14.5.2 Effect of Heating Rate on Sintering 14.5.3 Special Heating Schedules 14.6 Sintering Atmosphere 14.6.1 Gases in Pores 14.6.2 Effect on Vapor Transport 14.6.3 Volatilization and Decomposition 14.6.4 Oxidation State 14.7 Microwave Sintering 14.8 Pressure-Assisted Sintering 14.8.1 Hot Pressing 14.8.2 Hot Isostatic Pressing 14.9 Spark Plasma Sintering 14.10 Sintering of Ceramic Composites, Coatings and Multilayers 14.10.1 Sintering of Ceramic Composites 14.10.2 Sintering of Adherent Coatings 14.10.3 Co-sintering of Ceramic Multilayers 14.11 Conclusions Problems References 14.9 Spark Plasma Sintering 14.10 Sintering of Ceramic Composites, Coatings and Multilayers 14.10.1 Sintering of Ceramic Composites 14.10.2 Sintering of Adherent Coatings 14.10.3 Co-sintering of Ceramic Multilayers Chapter 15 Sol Gel Processing 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Sol Gel Processing of Aqueous Silicates 15.3 Metal Alkoxides 15.3.1 Preparation of Metal Alkoxides 15.3.2 Basic Properties of Metal Alkoxides 15.4 Sol Gel Processing of Silicon Alkoxides 15.4.1 Precursors 15.4.2 Hydrolysis and Condensation 15.4.3 Polymer Growth 15.4.4 Gelation 15.4.5 Drying of Gels 15.4.6 Gel Densification during Sintering 15.5 Sol Gel Preparation Techniques 15.5.1 Preparation of Particulate Gels 15.5.2 Preparation of Polymeric Gels 15.6 Applications of Sol Gel Processing 15.6.1 Thin Films and Coatings 15.6.2 Fibers 15.6.3 Monoliths 15.6.4 Porous Materials 15.6.5 Porous Materials 15.7 Concluding Remarks Problems References Chapter 16 Ceramic Fabrication Methods for Specific Shapes and Architectures 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Chemical Vapor Deposition 16.2.1 Plasma-Assisted Chemical Vapor Deposition 16.2.2 Chemical Vapor Infiltration 16.3 Directed Metal oxidation 16.4 Reaction Bonding 16.4.1 Reaction-Bonded Silicon Nitride 16.4.2 Reaction-Bonded Silicon Carbide 16.4.3 Reaction Bonding of Oxide Ceramics 16.5 Polymer Pyrolysis 16.6 Fabrication Routes for Fiber-Reinforced Ceramic Matrix Composites 16.6.1 Processing of SiC Fiber-Reinforced SiC Matrix Composites 16.6.2 Processing of Oxide Fiber-Reinforced Oxide Matrix Composites 16.7 Concluding Remarks Problems References Appendix A: Physical Constants Appendix B: SI Units - Names and Symbols Appendix C: Conversion of Units Appendix D: Aperture size of U.S. Standard Wire Mesh Sieves (ASTM E 11:87) Appendix E: Densities and Melting Points of Some Elements, Ceramics and Minerals

9781498716413

2